Sunday, August 29, 2010
Friday, July 30, 2010
Social Structure of Nepal
Nepal-Population Structure and Settlement Patterns POPULATION, NEPAL
At the time of the 1981 census, the total population of Nepal was 15,022,839, the average family was made up of 5.8 persons, and life expectancy at birth was close to fifty years. As of July 1990, the population was estimated at 19,145,800 persons. The annual population growth rate increased from less than 2 percent during the 1950s to more than 2.6 percent in 1990, suggesting that despite a trend toward increasing acceptance of family planning, the program did not have much influence on reducing the population growth rate. The Central Bureau of Statistics forecast that the total population would increase to 23.6 million by 2001 (see table 2, Appendix).
The 1981 census reveals a significant variation in regional growth rates. Although the Tarai Region's annual growth rate of 4.2 percent was much higher than the national average, the Hill and Mountain regions, respectively, posted growth rates of 1.7 and 1.4 percent. In terms of regional distribution, 43.6 percent (6,556,828 persons) of the country's population resided in the Tarai, whereas the shares of the Hill and Mountain regions totaled 7,163,115 (47.7 percent) and 1,302,896 (8.7 percent), respectively.
About 70 percent of the total population was of working age, or between the ages of fifteen and fifty-nine years. More than 65 percent of this segment of the population was considered economically active in 1981 (see Labor , ch. 3). In terms of employment structure, more than 91 percent of the economically active population was engaged in agriculture and allied activities, and the rest in the secondary (industrial) and tertiary (service) sectors, including government employment. In 1981 males and females who were widowed or separated constituted only a tiny fragment of the population--0.4 percent for each sex.
Data as of September 1991
Population Structure and Settlement Patterns
At the time of the 1981 census, the total population of Nepal was 15,022,839, the average family was made up of 5.8 persons, and life expectancy at birth was close to fifty years. As of July 1990, the population was estimated at 19,145,800 persons. The annual population growth rate increased from less than 2 percent during the 1950s to more than 2.6 percent in 1990, suggesting that despite a trend toward increasing acceptance of family planning, the program did not have much influence on reducing the population growth rate. The Central Bureau of Statistics forecast that the total population would increase to 23.6 million by 2001 (see table 2, Appendix).
The 1981 census reveals a significant variation in regional growth rates. Although the Tarai Region's annual growth rate of 4.2 percent was much higher than the national average, the Hill and Mountain regions, respectively, posted growth rates of 1.7 and 1.4 percent. In terms of regional distribution, 43.6 percent (6,556,828 persons) of the country's population resided in the Tarai, whereas the shares of the Hill and Mountain regions totaled 7,163,115 (47.7 percent) and 1,302,896 (8.7 percent), respectively.
About 70 percent of the total population was of working age, or between the ages of fifteen and fifty-nine years. More than 65 percent of this segment of the population was considered economically active in 1981 (see Labor , ch. 3). In terms of employment structure, more than 91 percent of the economically active population was engaged in agriculture and allied activities, and the rest in the secondary (industrial) and tertiary (service) sectors, including government employment. In 1981 males and females who were widowed or separated constituted only a tiny fragment of the population--0.4 percent for each sex.
Data as of September 1991
History of Nepal
The Ancient Period
According to Hindu belief , the history of the development of Nepalese civilization and culture can be traced back to the Age of truth. King Manu, who is said to be the first King of the world ruled Nepal in the Age of Truth (Satya Yuga) and Nepal was known as the Land of Truth (Satyawati). It was called the land of solitary meditation and penance (Tapovan) in the Silver Age (Treta Yuga). Similarly, Nepal was known as the ladder of slavation (Muktisopan) in the Copper Age (Dwapar Yuga); and it is known as 'Nepal' in the Iron Age, i.e., the present age of science and technology (Kali Yuga). The kings of the Solar dynasty ruled Nepal in the Age of Truth. They contributed much to the development of the Nepalese civilization and culture. The fact that we still follow the Solar Calendar in celebrating festivals and ceremonies testifies to the rule of the Solar Dynasty kings in our country.
The country, full of great forests, was the chosen place for sages like Kanwa, Biswamitra, Agastya, Valmiki, Yajnavalkya and others. King Dushyanta of India married Shakuntala, the adopted daughter of Kanwa Rishi of Nepal. Their son Bharat ruled over here. Then Nepal was called Mahabharat, and the surrounding territories under the souverainty of King Bharat was called Bharat (now the other name of India).
The Mahabharat range stands to corroborate this belief of King Bharat's supremacy. There are several references in the religious books of Hindus about Nepal. Janak, the king of Janakpur was known widely for the administration of justice. Some people believe that the Ramayan was composed at the bank of the Saptagandaki. Veda Vyasa was born here. The Vyas Cave at Damauli (Vyasangar) signifies this belief. Similarly, Biratnagar, the kingdom of King Birat is also mentioned in the Mahabharata. All these references show that Nepal had developed long before Manjushri visited the Kathmandu Valley. It is mentioned in Swayambhu Puran that Manjushri came from China and managed to drain away the water of a big lake called Nagadaha and peopled the valley. He established a town called Manjupattan and installed Dharmakar, its king.
After that, the history of Nepal was more or less limited to the history of the Kathmandu Valley. Since then, Nepal has been ruled by the kings of various dynasties - the Ahirs or Gopala, the Kiratas, the Lichchhavis, the Mallas and the Shahs.
ETYMOLOGY OF THE WORD 'NEPAL'
The word 'Nepal' has significantly been used as the name of our country. There are various opinions about it :
The word 'Nepal' has significantly been used as the name of our country. There are various opinions about it :
1. Long, long ago, the kings of the Gopala dynasty ruled over it. They were called 'Nepa', so, after the name of the dynasty who ruled over it, the country was named as 'Nepal'.
2. A sage called 'Ne' lived in penance on the confluence of the Bagmati and Bishnumati rivers. He was the sole advisor of the king. So, the word 'Nepal' was derived from the name of the sage 'Ne'.
3. 'Nepal' might also be derived from 'Newar', one of the ancient tribes living in Kathmandu valley.
4. In the Gandaki Mahatmya, it is mentioned that a king called 'Nepa' ruled over it. He conquered many kingdoms and established Shanker as his deity. He founded a country and called it 'Nepal', after his own name.
5. In the Tibetan language 'Ne' means 'home' and 'pal' means 'wool'. Sheep were reared in Kathmandu valley and much wool was produced. So, it was called the home of wool, i.e., Ne Pal.
6. In the Newari language 'Ne' means 'centre' and 'pa' means 'country'. So, 'Ne pa' means a country situated at the centre. Nepal is situated in between the two great countries, China and India. So, it was called a central country, i.e., Nepal.
7. In the Limbu dialect 'Ne' means 'plain area'. Kathmandu valley is a plain, so it was called 'Nepal'.
8. In the dialect of the Lepchas, 'Ne' means 'holy' and 'pal' means 'cave'. As it is a holy place - the centre of pilgrimage of Hindus and Buddhists, it was called a holy cave or Nepal.
9. In the language of the Tibeto-Burma people, 'Ne' means 'cattle' and 'pa' means 'people'. Kathmandu valley had a good grassland for cattle and the main occupation of the people was to rear animals. So, it was called the land of the people who reared animals, i.e., Nepal.
10. Thomas Young and Geroge Griharson, the two famous historians gave thier opinion that both the terms 'Nepal' and 'Newar' might be derived from the same root 'Nyarva'. In this way, Nyarva was turned into Newar and then to Nepal.
11. Kiratas, the earliest known inhabitants of this country, had a clan called 'Nepar' living in Kathmandu valley. So, Nepal might also be derived from Nepar.
There are no reliable written documents on the history of ancient Nepal. The people of that time had no historical sense. There had been the rise and fall of different dynasties all the time. The mode of administration, way of life, culture and civilization kept on changing from time to time. However, there are varieties of historical monuments, coins, temples, images of Gods and Goddesses, works of art, inscriptions, etc. which throw light on our past. They help us to draw the history of our country.
a. Chronicles: Chronicles (Bamsawalis) are one of the main historical sources which throw light on ancient Nepal. The chronicles mostly complied by Brahmins and Bajracharyas, deal with religious works of kings. Most of the available chronicles were written in or about 1800 A.D.
The latest one was written by a Buddhist Monk of Patan during the regin of Rana Bahadur Shah. It was translated into English by Daniel Wright. A short history of the king, some important events related to the king, are mentioned inthis chronicle. But it does not contain anything about the culture, civilization and the life of the people.
The latest one was written by a Buddhist Monk of Patan during the regin of Rana Bahadur Shah. It was translated into English by Daniel Wright. A short history of the king, some important events related to the king, are mentioned inthis chronicle. But it does not contain anything about the culture, civilization and the life of the people.
b. Colophons : Colophons are the hand-written books (manuscripts) of ancient times. At the end of their manuscripts different writers have mentioned their names, the names of contemporary kings, and some of the main event. These have been of great to write our history.
c. Ancient Religious Texts : Great religious texts of the Hindus like the Puranas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, etc. also help us to collect the historical facts of ancient Nepal. The marriage of Sita, the daughter of King Janak of Janakpur with Prince Ram of Ayodhya helped to exchange the culture of Nepal with India. The Kings of Nepal had participated in the great war of Mahabharata. The king of Nepal also took part in the Swayambara ceremony of Damayanti. Similarly, the king of Nepal offered gold, diamonds, herbs, animals and beautiful girls as gifts to King Yudhisthira of India in his Coronation Ceremony. Such accounts and other references have contributed much to the writing of the history of ancient Nepal.
d. Stone and Copper Inscriptions : Stone and Copper inscriptions of ancient times can also be a considerable help to write our history. The inscription written on stones and copper are found from the 5th century A.D. to 8th century A.D. in Sanskrit. The Lichchhavi inscriptions at the temple of Changunarayan and those of Lazimpat are such inscriptions. but the inscriptions after the rule of the Lichchhavi King Siva Deva are yet to be found. However, from the 14th century onward, from the rule of Malla King, Jaysthiti Malla, there are sufficient inscriptions in various places on the basis of which it is possible to write the history of ancient Nepal.
e. Ancient Buildings, Temples and Stupas : Ancient buildings, temples, stupas, statues and wooden and metal images are other reliable sources of the history of Nepal. They provide clear evidence of the excellence of the Nepalese arts and sculptures. They also tell us the names of artists and sculptors, and their patrons. The most important temples are of Changunarayan, Pashupatinath, Hanuman Dhoka. Krishna Mandir of Patan, the Nyatapol (five - storey) of Bhaktapur, Swayambhunath, Baudhnath, Mahabaudha, etc. These temples and the statues of the Malla kings are of great historical value.
f. Ancient Coins : Different kinds of coins on which names of the sun, the moon, horses, bulls, etc., are imprinted, have been found in different places. These coins throw light on the character, work, period of rule, tastes and religious temperament of the kings of that time.
g. Foreign Accounts : This history of Nepal has also come to light from the writings and accounts of foreigners and foreign travellers. It is mentioned in Arthasastra of Kautilya that Nepalese woollen blankets were of great demand in the Indian markets. Similarly, the Rajtarangini of Kalhan speaks about the Nepalese war. Again, the collective writings of the Chinese kings of the 'Ming' dynasty, the accounts of the Chinese travellers like Hieun Tseng, and the writings of Indian and European historians throw much light on the history of Nepal.
h. Archaelogical Findings : Ancient vessels, coins, utensils, images and stone-taps have been discovered from recent excavation works at Tilaurakot, Lumbini, Bishalnagar, Lazimpat and Ratna Park. They also are of great historical value. It is expected that new archaeological evidence will be discovered from time to time that will tell us more about our history.
There is no definite historical proof of this period. On the basis of legends, chronologies and folk-lores, a history is drawn on supposition. So, this period is called legendary period.
1. The Kathmandu Valley Kathmandu Valley consisted of a big lake called 'Nagadaha'. The lake was surrounded by hills on all sides and there was nothing but water in it. In ancient times, a sage called Bipaswi Buddha settled on Nagarjun hill, in the north - west corner of Nagadaha. On the full moon day of Chaitra, he sowed a lotus seed in the middle of the lake through divine inspiration.
After six months on the full moon day of Aswin, a lotus flower grew out of the seed and the image of Swayambhu appeared there throwing bright rays of light. Later on, Bishwabhu Buddha came with his disciples and settled on Fulchoki hill. He worshipped Lord Swayambhu with a hundred thousand flowers and taught his disciples how to drain out the water of the lake and went back.
2. Manjushri Bodhisattwa It is mentioned in the Swayambhu Puran that Manjushri came from China to worship the glowing flame of Lord Swayambhu. From the top of Mandapgiri (Nagarkot) he saw the flames constantly emanating from Swayambhu. Then he thought to drain out the water of Nagadaha. Placing his two Shaktis (powers) - 'Mokshyada' on Fulchoki and 'Barada' on Katwaldaha, he cut down the hill between them with his sword and let the water go out of it. A beautiful valley with good soil appeared and he asked his disciples to settle there. Then he worshipped Swayambhu and Guheswari. He made Dharmakar, one of his disciples, the ruler of the valley. He also founded a beautiful city and named it Manjupattan. Then, leaving his disciples, he went back to his country.
3. Krakuchanda Buddha Krakuchanda came from Kshamavati and lived in the forest near Guheswari along with his disciples. The forest was a beautiful place to live in. It was called Mrigasthali as the Gods and Goddesses visited this place in the form of deer to see Lord Swayambhu and Guheswari. It was also called Slesmantak because the Slesman tree grew there. Lord Shiva used to wander about this forest in the guise of a Kirat. A stone image of Lord Shiva is still found there which is known as Kirateswar.
King Dharmakar had no issue. So Dharmapal, one of the disciples of Krakuchanda succeeded him. Karkuchanda found that there was a scarcity of water in the valley. So, he prayed to Goddess Guheswari for it. The Goddess listened to his prayer and generated the river Bagmati from the north of Shivapur hill.
This place is now called Bagdwar, the source of the Bagmati river. Sudhanwa was another king, the descendant of Dharmapal. It is said that Sudhanwa participated in the Swayambara ceremony of Sita at Janakpur. During the ceremony he was killed by Kushadhoj, the brother of King Janak. Now Kushadhoj came to reign in Nepal. His descendants ruled over Nepal for many centuries.
4. Prachanda Dev At the end of the Dwapar Yuga, Kanakmuni Buddha from Shobhavati and Kashyap Buddha from Varanasi came to Nepal on a pilgrimage tour. When Kanakmuni went back to Gaud, he sent Prachanda Dev, the king of Gaud (Bengal) to Nepal to worship Swayambhu and Guheswari. He also advised the king to become the disciple of Gunakar, one of the disciples of Manjushri, Prachanda Dev, thus came to Nepal and became a monk. He was later known as 'Shantishri'. He covered the flaming image of Swayambhu and erected a stupa over it. He also made five penance groves, viz. Agnipur, Shantipur, Vayupur, Nagpur and Basupur.
The last king of Kushadhoj's dynasty died childless. So, Prachanda Dev's son Shakti Dev came from Gaud and made one of his relatives Gunakama Dev, the king of Nepal. It is said that there had been a great famine in Nepal during the region of Gunakama Dev. Then Shantishri (Prachanda Dev) with the help of the Nagas, got rid of the famine when they received plenty of rainfall. The last king of this dyansty was Simhaketu. During his region Nepal was quite developed in all aspects. Nepal had trade relations with India, Tibet and Sri Lanka. After Simhaketu, there was a long succession of kings. Dharmadutta came from south India, who peopled the country with the four castes of Hindus i.e., Brahman, Kshetriya, Vaishya and Sudra. It is also said that he built the temple of Pashupatinath.
5. The Gopal Dynasty There was a great earthquake and, as a result of earthquake, the temple of Pashupatinath and toppled down and debris had covered the flaming image. Then, Danasur (a demon) again filled the valley with water. So, Lord Krishna came to Nepal, killed Dansasur and married his daughter. He also drained out the water through the gorge of Chobar, and peopled the valley. A large number of cowherds had come along with Lord Krishna and they settled in Nepal.
Nemuni, who according to a legend, is considered to be the patron saint of Nepal, used to perform religious ceremonies at Teku, the confluence of the Bagmati and Bishnumati rivers. He selected a pious cowherd, Bhuktaman to be the first king in the line of the gopal (cowherd) dynasty. The Gopal dynasty ruled for 621 years. Yakshya Gupta was the last king of this dynasty. In course of time, pastoral disputes arose and this dynasty was replaced by the 'Ahirs' or 'Abhirs'. Ahir was another cowherd and shepherd race from India. Three kings of this dynasty ruled over Nepal. They were Badasimha, Jaymati Simha and Bhuban Simha. The Gopal and Ahir dynasties are supposed to be the beginning of the historical dynasty in Nepal. Bhuban Simha was defeated by Yalamber, the chief of the Kiratas, who invaded Nepal from the east and became the first Kirat king of Nepal.
The Kirats
The Kirats were the aborigines of north-eastern Himalayas. According to Baburam Acharya, they came to Nepal in about 700 B.C. and ruled over it. They were short and had robust bodies, broad checks, flat noses, thin whiskers, and dark eyes. They were well trained in the art of warfare, and were very skillful archers. They were the ancestors of the present day Kiratas: - Kulung, Thulung and Yellung. Yalamber, the first Kirati king of Nepal belonged to the Yellung clan.
Altogether, there were 29 kings of this dynasty who ruled over Nepal for about 1225 years. According to the chronicle (Bamsavali) of Kirkpatrick, Kiratas ruled over Nepal from about 900 B.C. to 300 A.D. On the basis of the Puranas and other ancient religious texts, it is presumed that the Kiratas ruled in Nepal after Gopal and Mahipal. The first king of the Kiratas was Yalamber, who defeated Bhuvan Singh, the last king of Ahir dynasty and established Kirat rule in Nepal. He extended his kingdom as far as the Tista river in the east and the Trishuli in the west. It is said that during the battle of Mahabharata, Yalamber went to witness the battle with a view to take the side of the loosing party. Lord Krishna, knowing the intention of Yalamber and the strength and unity of the Kiratas, thought that the war would unnecessarily be prolonged if Yalamber sided with the Kauravas. So, by a clever stroke of diplomacy, Lord Krishna cut off Yalamber's head.
The Kirat Kings
The 29 Kirat kings were as follows :
1. Yalamber 2. Pavi 3. Skandhar 4. Balamba, 5. Hriti, 6. Humati, 7. Jitedasti, 8. Galinja, 9. Pushka, 10. Suyarma, 11. Papa, 12. Bunka, 13. Swananda, 14. Sthunko, 15. Jinghri, 16. Nane, 17. Luka, 18. Thor, 19. Thoko, 20. Verma, 21. Guja, 22. Pushkar, 23. Keshu, 24. Suja, 25. Sansa, 26. Gunam 27. Khimbu, 28. Patuka, 29. Gasti.
During the region of 7th Kirati King Jitedasti, Gautama Buddha visited the Nepal Valley along with his disciples. He visited the shrines of Swayambhu and Guheswari and preached his doctrine. There are also references to the fact that Jitedasti fought in the battle of Mahabharata from the Pandava's side.
During the rule of Sthunko, the 14th king of the dynasty, about 250 B.C. the Indian Emperor Asoka came on a pilgrimage to Lumbini, in Nepal. To mark the birthplace of Gautama Buddha, Asoka got inscriptions engraved on rocks and set up a stone-pillar. In about 640 A.D., Hieun Tseng, a Chinsese traveller, visited this place. He has described that the stone-pillar was cracked due to thunder. The stone-pillar of Asoka was unknown until 1st December 1985 A.D. when Dr. Fuhrer engraved it. (Now His Majesty's Government of Nepal has set up a plan, 'Lumbini Development Project', to preserve this antiquity.) He also visited different parts of Nepal valley along with his daughter Charumati. To commemorate the visit, he got four stupas erected in four quarters and one in the central part of Lalitpattan, the modern Patan. They exist even to this day. Asoka's visit to Kathmandu is testified by the fact that he gave his daughter Charumati in marriage to Devapal, a Kshetriya Prince. She settled near Pashupati and founded a town called 'Devpatan' in memory of her husband Devapal. She also got a Vihar (nunnery) erected for herself which was called Charumati Vihar. The nunnery and its surroundings are now known as Chabahil. In this way, after the visit of Asoka, Buddhism flourished in the Nepal valley. Jainsim, another religious cult, contemporary of Buddhism, was founded by Mahavir Jain in India. Several disciples of Mahavir Jain preached the doctrines of Jainism in various parts of India. It is said that during the regin of Jinghri, the 15th Kirata king, one of the disciples of Mahavir Jain named Bhadrabahu entered Nepal in about 300 B.C. But his visit to Nepal was society and Buddhism was just being introduced. So, the Nepalese did not accept Jainism.
During the regime of Patuka, the 28th Kirati king, the Soma dynasty kings attacked Nepal several times. Patuka had to leave Gokarna because of the repeated attacks of the Soma dynasty kings from the west. So, he settled in Shankhamul and made it a beautiful town. there he built a palace which was known as the 'Patuko Palace'. Though nothing but a mound of the palace in ruins now exists, the place is still called Patuko. The last Kirati king was Gasti, who was defeated by Nimisha of the Soma dynasty and the Kirati rule came to an end. Thus, Nimisha became the first king of Soma dynasty.
Civilization And Culture Of Kiratas
During the rule of the Kiratas, Nepal made considerable progress in the field of art and architecture, trade and commerce. The Kiratis were not only good warriors but also good administrators. Men and women were treated equally. Criminals were given severe punishment. For the administration of justice, law-courts were established at several places-Kuther, Shuli, Lingual, Mapchok, etc.
Trade and commerce flourished under the Kiratas. Nepal had trade relations with Tibet, China and India. The exports of Nepal mainly consisted of wool, woollen goods, wood and herbs. Kautilya, in his 'Arthasastra', says that Nepali wollen blankets were very popular in the market of Magadha (Bihar in modern India). People took more interest in business than in agriculture. Because of its economic prosperity, people from different places, of different tribes and races came to Nepal and settled down. Thus, the people having different customs and practices all merged into a nation. This resulted in the development of a new culture of its own.
The cultural and religious life of the people was highly developed under the Kiratas, The main religion of the Kiratas was Hinduism. they worshipped Lord Shiva, serpents, trees, stones etc. The images of Kiratewar Mahadev and Birupakshya show the standard of architecture of the Kiratas. Buddhism also flourished under the Kiratas. The stupas, pagodas, and temples were all built on the model of Buddhist art.
The Kiratas developed a number of towns. The thickly populated centres were Malatirtha, Shankhamul, Thankot, Khopung (Bhaktapur), Khopase, Sanga, Teku, etc. Nepal exchanged its culture and civilization with India, Tibet and China. The introduced of Buddhism brought intellectual awakening among the people. In this way, the foundation of the vast structure of the Nepalese culture was laid down under the Kiratas. Indeed, this period can be regarded as the foreunner of the future development of the Nepalese society in all aspects.
Soma Dynasty Kings
The Soma dynasty had established a principality in the west while the Kirati kings were ruling over the Nepal valley. The Soma dynasty kings attacked Nepal several times during the region of Patuka, but they could not defeat him. The last Kirati King Gasti was comparatively weak, so he was defeated by Nimisha of the Soma dynasty. Thus, Nimisha became the first Soma dynasty king of Nepal in about 205 A.D. He built his palace in Godavari. It was from his time that the Godavari-Mela (fair) began to be held at Godavari, every twelve years. He also erected the four faced linga of Pashupatinath. He repaired the temple of Pashupatinath as well.
After Nimisha, Mitakshya, Kakaverma and Pashuprekshya Dev ruled over Nepal. Bhaskerverma was the fifth and last Soma dynasty king who ruled over Nepal during 280 to 305 A.D. It was he who led a military expedition and reached up to Rameswaram, the southern-most part of India. He gathered a vast treasure of wealth from this campaign. With this wealth he made a gold-plating roof on the temple of Pashupatinath and developed the economic condition of his kingdom. He filled Devapatan with his wealth and named it 'Swarnapuri'. He was childless, so he made Bhumi Verma, his heir, who was a Rajput Keshetriya of the Solar dynasty. Thus, the soma dynasty rule came to an end.
The Lichchhavi Period
THE LICHCHHAVIS
After the downfall of Soma dynasty, the Lichchhavi period began in the history of Nepal. During the time of Gautama Buddha, the kings of Lichchhavi dynasty were ruling over Baisali (Muzaffarpur, in modern Bihar). Baisali had a partly democratic form of government. According to the inscriptionf of Jaya Dev II, Supushpa was the founder of Lichchhavi dynasty. But he was defeated by Ajatsatru, the powerful Magadha King, in the 5th century B.C. Ajatsatru's descendents came over to Nepal and established their domain. when the kings of Kushan dynasty became powerful in India, the Lichchhavis migrated to Nepal. The 24th descedant of King Supushpa, Jaya Dev II, re-estabslished the rule of Lichchhavis in Nepal.
Brisha Dev was another powerful king of the Lichchhavis who extended his territory far and wide. Chandra Gupta I, the Indian emperor, was alarmed of the rise of Brisha Dev. He preserved the sovereignty of India by his wide political tact. He visited Nepal and married Kumara Devi, the daughter of Brisha Dev. Kumara Devi gave birth to emperor Samundra Gupta. Some historians are of the opinion that it was Bhasker Verma, not Brisha Dev who was the father of Kumara Devi. Another famous Lichchhavi ruler was Haridutta. He built four Narayan temples - Changunarayan, Vishankhunarayan, Sikhanarayan, and Ichankhunarayan. He also built Budhanilkantha. He made Vaishnavism the Royal cult of Nepal.
MANA DEVA
Mana Deva was the most famous king among the Lichchhavi rulers. Historians differ about the period of his rule. However, according to the inscriptions of Changunarayan temple, Mana Deva ruled Nepal from 464 A.D. to 505 A.D.
Mana Deva was the son of Dharma Deva. He was brave and courageous. He had acquired good skill in the art of warfare. He was a lover of art and architecture as well. While he was a mere child Dharma Deva died. His mother Rajyavati was about to immolate herself on the funeral pyre along with her dead husband (to become a satee), but at the request of Mana Deva she lived to nurture and inculcate good qualities in him.
Mana Deva was only a little boy when he ascended the throne. Taking this advantage, the Thakuri governors of the eastern provinces rebelled and tried to be independent. But he amassed his troops and suppressed the rebellion. Then he marched towards the west and occupied many provinces. With the help of his maternal uncle he invaded Mallapur, across the Gandaki river and annexed it to his kingdom. Thus his kingdom was extended up to the Himalayas in the north, the other side of the Gandaki in the west, the Koshi, in the south.
Mana Deva and his mother Rajyavati performed many religious sacrifices, gave gifts to Brahmans and worshipped Changu Narayan. Mana Deva was a great devotee of Lord Vishnu. He also respected Buddhism. He built many Vihars and stupas in different parts of the country. He erected an image of Tribikram Narayan at Lazimpat. He built a famous royal palace that was called 'Mangriha' at Gokarna from where the administration of the country was conducted. He also built the shrine of Changunarayan, and renovated the Chakra Mahavihar. He minted coins in his name for the first time in the history of Nepal, and named them 'Mananka'. He was a bold, handsome, strong and a liberal king. He was a wise administrator and the chief patron, guardian and great supporter of his people. He is considered to be the first king of Nepal having historical authenticity.
According to the inscription of Jaya Dev II, after Mana Deva, Mahideva and Basanta Deva became the king of Nepal. A few generations after Basantadeva, Shiva Deva I, ascended the throne of Nepal. According to Jagadish Chandra Regmi, Shiva Deva was the son of Mana Deva II.
SHIVADEVA I
Shivadeva was another illustrious ruler of the Lichchhavi dynasty. He ascended the throne in about 588 A.D. From the very beginning of his rule, he placed Amshuverma in charge of the entire administration of the country. Shiva Deva I was impressed by Amshuverma's heroism and administrative ability. So, he gave his daughter in marriage to Amshuverma and made him 'Mahasamanta'. Then the dual administration was held for some time.
AMSHUVERMA
During the reign of Shivadeva, Amshuverma was the de-facto ruler. At the death of Shivadeva in 605 A.D. he became the sole sovereign and adopted the title of king. He belonged to the Thakuri clan and thus he established the Thakuri dynasty in Nepal. He built 'Kailashkut Bhavan' at Devapattan and transferred the seat of government from Mangriha to Kailashkut. He also minted coins in his name.
Amshuverma was endowed with all the kingly qualities and virtues. He was a just, impartial and an able administrator. He was a true servant of the people without any political bias. According to some inscriptions, King Shiva Deva used to say that Amshuverma was a man of universal fame and he always destroyed his enemies by his heroic nature. Some other inscriptions tell us that he had a great personality, who dispelled darkness by the light of his glory. Hiuen Tseng writes about him as a man of high accomplishments and great glory. He himself was a learned man and respected scholar. He had written a book on Grammar in Sanskrit. The great grammarian Chandraverma, a scholar of Nalanda University, was patronized by him. He followed Shaivism but was tolerant towards all other religions. He can rightly be compared with the Emperor Asoka of India as regards his political outlook and impartial feelings without any religious prejudices. For the development of economic condition of the people he paid great attention to the improvement of trade and commerce of the country. Nepal had trade relations with India, Tibet and China and it became the thoroughfare of India's trade with China and vice versa. He gave equal importance to industrial advancement and agricultural prosperity. He made every effort to help the people by providing canals to irrigate the fields. He levied water tax, land tax, defence tax and luxury tax. He used the income from these sources for the development works of the country. He did not use it for his personal pleasure and luxury.
During the reign of Amshuverma, Harshverdhana of India and Srong Tsang Gampo of Tibet were trying to extend their territories. Keeping Harshaverdhana at arms length he made a metrimonial alliance with Tibet. He gave his daughter Bhrikuti in marriage to the Tibetan King Srong Tsang Gampo. He also gave his sister Bhoga Devi in marriage to an Indian King Shur Sen. With all this political sagacity and far-sightedness, Amshuverma maintained the sovereignty and independence of the country.
HIUEN-TSENG
Hiun-Tseng was a Buddhist monk of China. In about 630 A.D. he visited India via Tashkent to study Buddhism. He stayed in India for 14 years and visited Varanasi, Gaya, Kushinagar Kapilvastu and Lumbini. Though he did not visit Kathmandu Valley, he visited Lumbini in about 637 A.D. He prepared a detailed account about Indian culture, civilization and the successful administration of Harshaverdhana. He also noted down a brief account about Nepal. He described Nepal in the following way :
This country, Nipolo is surrounded by snow-clad mountains, of an area of 4,000 Lee (Chinese scale which is equivalent to 1067 km). The area of the capital is 20 Lee (about 6 km) Food and fruits are found in abundance. Copper, Yak and Mingming (Chinese name of a bird) are also found here. Copper coins are used in trade. The people of this land do not speak the truth. They are not dependable and trustworthy people. They have ill manners. They are not educated but highly skilled in art and architecture. Their appearance is not attractive and they do not look friendly. Apart from Buddhism, there are also people following other religions. Buddhist stupas and Hindu temples are constructed side by side. About 2,000 Buddhist monks have been studying here about Hinayan and Mahayan of Buddhism. The regining king is of the Lichchhavi dynasty. He possesses a wide variety of knowledge. He has a noble character. He has faith in Buddhism. Recently, Anchufabo (Amshuverma) was ruling the country. His glory and greatness is renowned. He has composed a book of Grammer. He respects learned and talented people.
Hiuen-Tseng also mentioned an oil line to the south-east of the capital. This source of oil was again metnioned by other Chinese travellers who visited Nepal during the reign of Narendra Deva.
SUCCESSORS OF AMSHUVERMA
After the death of Amshuverma, Usay Dev I, son of Shivadeva, ascended the throne. He was dethroned by his younger brother, Dhurba Dev. He went to Tibet and took shelter under Srong Tsang Gampo. Jisnu Gupta, chief of the Avir dynasty, helped Dhruba Dev to acquire the throne. Now Jisnu Gupta bacame powerful. Dhurba Dev ruled from Mangriha and Jisnu Gupta from Kailashkut Bhavan. The administrative authority was in the hands of Jisnu Gupta. Kailashkut Bhavan was the adminitrative centre of the country. Thus, there was a dual government. Eventually, Jisnu Gupta became the de-facto ruler. He minted coins in his name as Amshuverma had done, and declared himself the king of Nepal. After Dhurba Dev, a descendant of Amshuverma was placed on the throne. But again Jisnu Gupta's son Bishnu Gupta became the real ruler.
NARENDRA DEV
Narendra Dev was the son of Uday Dev II. Uday Dev had to take shelter under the Tibetan King Srong-Tsang-Gompo. Narendra Dev, with Tibetan aid took revenge against the enemy of his father and restored his ancestral throne by defeating Bishnu Gupta. Thus, he ended the double rule and became the 7th king of the Lichchhavi dynasty. He ascended the throne in about 640 A.D. He was a wise and good ruler. He always wished to see his people happy and prosperous. He was a man much given to sensual pleasure. He always wore Jewelled earrings in his ears. He loved flowers and variety of perfume. It was he who brought the patron deity Machchhendranath from Kamrup(Assam, in India). A Chinese Mission visited Nepal for the first time during his rule in about 643 A.D. Again, in 647 A.D., a second Chinese Mission under the leadership of Wang Hiun Tse visited Nepal. This Mission highly praised the development of Nepalese art and architecture. Narendra Dev also sent a Mission to China with presents and messages of good will.
Narendra Dev was a pleasure-loving king. He found pleasure in decorating himself, his palace and his people. The people wore earplugs of bamboo and bone. They used utensils of copper. They wore long and loose garments covering the whole body. The people were skilled in dramas and playing musical instruments. They worshipped Panchayan i.e., five Gods- Ganesh, Shiva, Bishnu, the Sun God and Goddess Durga. The houses were made of wood, decorated with carving and paintings. The pictures of gods and goddesses and of different animals were carved on the walls of the houses. Thus, the rule of Narendra Dev proved to be much advanced in all fields, particularly in art and architecture. He died in 683 A.D.
SHIVADEVA II
After the death of Narendra Dev, his son Shivadeva II ruled from 684 to 705 A.D. He married Betsa Devi, the daughter of king Bhogaverma of Magadha. Due to this matrimonial relation, he maintained a very good relationship with the powerful Magadha kingdom of India.
JAYA DEVA II
After Shivadeva II, Jaya Deva II ascended the throne. He married Rajyavati, the daughter of King Harsha Dev of Koshal. He was a learned man and a great poet. When his mother Betsa Devi offered a silver lotus to Pashupatinath he composed a hymn and inscribed the same on a stone behind the huge brass image of Nandi (bull) in front of the temple of Pashupatinath. During his rule Tibet made an unsuccessful attempt to invade Nepal, but was defeated at the hands of the Nepalese. The Tibetan king was killed in the confrontation. Jaya Deva II ruled in Nepal till 729 A.D.
ARAMUDI
Aramudi was also known as Baradeva. He made Lalitpatan (Patan) his capital, He was a brave and clever king. According to Kalhan's 'Rajtarangini' King Vanayaditya Vinayaditya was a powerful king of Kashmir from 770 A.D. to 800 A.D. He conquered many principalities of India and then advanced to occupy Nepal in 782 A.D. When the troops of Jayapid reached the Kaligandaki river ( near Ridi, in Palpa), Armudi's troops attacked the enemies. Jayapid ordered the Kashmiri troops to cross the river. At that time, the water in the river was only knee-deep. But when the invaders stepped into the river, the Nepalese troops let out the water that was harnessed by a dam. Suddenly, the river was flooded and the enemies were swept away. Jayapid, the king himself was arrested and imprisoned. Later on, when Dev Sharma the minister of Jayapid, heard this news he came to Nepal and met the king. He organized the successful escape of the king at the cost of his own life. It is said that he committed suicide and king Jayapida Vinayaditya crossed the river with the help of Dev Sharma's dead body and reached Kashmir with great difficulty.
CIVILIZATION AND CULTURE OF THE LICHCHHAVIS
There was peace and prosperity in the kingdom of Nepal during the rule of the Lichchhavis. Before the rule of Lichchhavis, Nepal could not develop its culture, religion, economic condition and administrative system, and lacked a skillful ruler. But, when the Lichchhavi period began in Nepal there was a great change in the political condition and economic system of the country. The Lichchhavi rulers were perfect in good administration. They built 'Man Griha' and 'Kailashkut Bhavan' as adminitrative centres. The Lichchhavi kings extended the boundry of Nepal and maintained good relationships with India, China and Tibet. The important achievements of the Lichchhavis can be discussed under the following heads :
a. Administration : For the efficient administration of the country the Lichchhavis set up a council of ministers headed by Mahasamanta. For administrative conveniencec, the kingdom was divided into provinces, districts and villages. There were law-courts to administer justice. There were local bodies called the 'Panchali' to settle minor disputes and to carry out the public utility services. There were edifices like Mangriha and Kailaskut Bhavan from where the whole kingdom was administered. The administrative power was not centralized but was passed on to the local bodies, associations and assemblies of the People.
The Lichchhavis had a well organized army. It consisted of the infantry, cavalry and elephant-riders. Proper training was given to the army from time to time. During war, the king himself led the army.
b. Foreign Policy: The Lichchhavis maintained a good relationship with the neighbouring countries. Nepal had trade relations with India, Tibet and China. Nepal also had become the thoroughfare between India and China. The marriage of Bhrikuti and Srong Tsang Gampo resulted in a good relationship between Nepal and Tibet. Nepal adopted a non-aligned foreign policy and maintained friendship with her neighbouring countries : specially India, China and Tibet.
c. Social Condition : Though the Lichchhavis were Hindus and there was a caste system in the society, other classes of people were not neglected. There were Ahirs, Kiratas, Thakuris and Bhutias. There was inter-marriage among different classes of people. People gave co-operation to one another and developed the sense of nationality. National unity was not hampered because of the difference of caste, creed and dynasty. They had a great respect, faith and love for the king, whose main function was to establish peace and order in the country. The king was also responsible for the development of the kingdom. People lived simple and pious lives. Ornaments, house decoration and entertainments formed part of the daily life of the people.
d. Economic Condition : The main source of income of the government was taxation. The merchants had to pay custom duty for the imported and exported goods. The vanquished countries had to pay tribute and war indemnity. The cultivators had to pay land revenue. The main occupation of the people was trade and commerce. Nepalese art and handicraft goods and other cottage industry products were exported to Tibet, India and China. Some roads were paved with bricks. Horses, mules and elephants were the means of transport. In the hills, people carried goods on their backs. People wore ornaments of gold, silver and copper. In this way, Nepal had a sound economic condition under the Lichchhavis.
e. Judicial System : There were law courts to administer justice. Learned men were consulted to make laws. Punishments were inflicted according to the gravity of the offence. There were different forms of punishments. But most of them were of reformative type. Thieves, robbers, murderers and rebels were punished severely. The local bodies like the Panchali also administered justice in the adjudication of local petty cases.
f. Religion : There was religious toleration. Even in the same family people worshipped different deities. The Lichchhavi rulers were the followers of Hinduism, but they never hated Buddhism. However, when Shankaracharya III came from India, he suppressed Buddhist and preached Hinduism. It is said that he forced the Buddhist monks and nuns to get married and live together. He is also said to have burnt 84,000 books on Buddhism. Despite these facts, the Nepalese people retained Buddhism. Both Hinduism and Buddhism flourished in Nepal under the Lichchhavis and there existed a mutual good will and understading among the followers of the two religions.
g. Literature, Art and Architecture : Sankrit was the official language. Sone of the Lichchhavi kings were scholars; Amshuverma had composed a grammar in Sankrit and Jaya Deva had wrtten poems in Sanskrit. Threre was a great development of art and architecture as well. Fine architectural structures like Mangriha, Kailashkut Bhavan , the temple of Pashupatinath, Changunarayan, Bhadradivas, etc. testify this. Similarly, the images of Tribikram Narayan, Dhumbarahi, and the metal works and crafts speak of the excellence of Nepalese art in the Lichchhavi period.
In this way, Nepal made all-round development under the Lichchhavis. The Nepalese civilization and culture was spread over to India, Tibet and China. The Nepalese society was also influenced to some extent by other cultures and civilizations. For the efficient administration, peace and harmony, the development of art and architecture and friendly relations with neighbouring countries the Lichchhavi period has been called the 'Golden Age' in the history of Nepal.
The Thakuri Dynastey
RULE OF THAKURI KINGS
After Aramudi, many Thakuri kings ruled over the country up to the middle of the 12th century A.D Raghv Dev is said to have founded a ruling dynasty in October, 869 A.D., when the Lichchhavi rule came to an end. To commemorate this important event, Raghv Dev started the 'Nepal Era' which began form 20th October, 869 A.D. After Amshuverma, the Thakuris had lost power and they could regain it only in 869 A.D. The importance of this for the Thakuris must have been even greater because during Amshuverma's time they were only regents, but they became all powerful as the sovereign in 896 A.D. So, this historical event- replacing the Lichchhavis by the Thakuri rulers signified the start of a new era as 'Nepal Era'.
However, historians are of different opinions about the origin of the Nepal era. Some writers are of the opinion that Nepalese were superstitious. They dropped the unlucky number 8 of the Saka Era 801 and thus, they retained number 1 as the new Nepali Era. Some writers suggest that a new era was started in 869 A.D. to mark the occasion of Nepal becoming independent of Tibet. But our history does not agree with this view as Nepal was never under the Tibetan rule. There are also some other writers who say that there was a merchant called Sakhwal in Kathmandu during the reign of Ananda Malla. By his cunning tricks he changed the sand into gold and paid off all the debts of the people of Kathmandu. He then introduced a new era called 'Nepal Sambat' to commemorate this important event. But the reign of Ananda Malla comes three hundred years later, so this view also cannot be accepted.
All these opinions, except that about Raghav Dev, lack historical as well as logical proof. So, it can be concluded that the Nepal Era was started in 869 A.D., during the reign of Raghav Dev to commemorate the occasion of the Thakuri dynasty coming into power and the end of the Lichchhavi dynasty.
GUNAKAMA DEV
After the death of King Raghava Dev, many Thakuri kings ruled over Nepal up to the middle of the 12th century A.D. During that period, Gunakama Dev was one of the famous kings. He ruled form 949 to 994 A.D. During his rule, a big wooden house was built out of one single tree which was called 'Kasthamandup'. Kasthamandup was the root word form which the name of our capital town 'Kathamndu' is derived. Gunakama Dev founded a big town called Kantipur, the modern Kathmandu. According to Bamsavali, it cost him a hundred thousand rupees a day to build this town. He built more than eighteen thousand houses there. It was also Gunakama Dev who started the 'Indra Jatra' festival. He repaired the temple that lies to the northern part of the temple of Pashupatinath. He also initiated the practice of worshipping Lumadi, Raktakali, Kankeshwari, Panchalinga, Bhairab and Manamaiju. He introduced Krishna Jatra and Lakhe Jatra as well. He also performed Kotihoma.
SUCCESSORS OF GUNAKAMA DEV
Bhola Deva succeeded Gunakama Dev. The next ruler was Laxmikama Dev who ruled form 1024 to 1040 A.D. He built Laxmi Vihar and introduced the custom of worshipping a virgin girl as 'Kumari'. Then, Vijayakama Dev became the king of Nepal. He was the son of Laxmikama Dev. Vijaykama Dev was the last ruler of this dynasty. He introduced worshipping of the "Naga" and "Basuki". After his death, the Thakuri clan of Nuwakot occupied the throne of Nepal.
NUWAKOT THAKURI KINGS
Bhasker Dev succeeded Vijayakama Dev, who was a Thakuri form Nuwakot. Thus he established Nuwakot-Thakuri rule in the country. He is said to have built Navabahal and Hemabarna Vihar. After Bhasker Dev, four kings of this line ruled over the country. They were-Bala Dev, Padma Dev, Nagarjun Dev and Shanker Dev.
1) Shanker Dev : Shanker Dev was the most illustrious ruler of the Nuwakot-Thakuri dynasty. He ruled from 1067 to 1080 A.D. He established the image of 'Shanteswar Mahadev' and 'Monohara Bhagawati'. The system of pasting the pictures of Nagas and Basuki on the doors of houses on the day of Nagapanchami was introduced by him. During his time, the Buddhists wreaked vengeance on the Hindu Brahmins (especially the followers of Shivism) for the harm they had received earlier from Shankaracharya III. Shaner Dev tried to pacify the Brahmins harassed by the Buddhists.
SURYABANSI ( SOLAR DYNASTY ) RAJPUT KINGS
Bam Dev, a descendant of Amshuverma defeated Shanker Dev in 1080 A.D. He suppressed the Nuwakot-Thankuris with the help of nobles and restored the old Solar Dynasty rule in Nepal for the second time. Harsha Dev, the successor of Bam Dev was a weak ruler. There was no unity among the nobles and they asserted themselves in their respective spheres of influence. Taking that opportunity, Nanya Dev, a Karnatak king invaded Nepal from Simroungarh. According to chronicles, he made his residence at Bhadgaon and began to rule for some time. Mukunda sen, the king of Palpa, was another invader of the Nepal valley. He plundered and destroyed many houses and looted a huge amount of property. It is said that after the ivasion of Mukund Sen, the tradition of making Hakuwa rice, Gundruk and Sinki began in our country.
Shivadeva III
: After Harsha Dev, Shivadeva, the third, came to the throne. He ruled from 1099 to 1126 A.D. He was a brave and powerful king. He founded the town of Kirtipur and roofed the temple of Pashupatinath with gold. He introduced twenty-five piece coins. He also constructed wells, canals and tanks at different places.
After Sivadeva III, Mahendra Dev, Mana Dev, Narendra Dev II, Ananda Dev, Rudra Dev, Amrit Dev, Ratna Dev II, Someswar Dev, Gunakama Dev II, Laxmikama Dev III and Vijayakama Dev II ruled Nepal in quick succession. Thus, there was the rule of many kings after the start of the new era introducd by Raghav Dev. Historians differ about the rule of several kings and their respective times. After the fall of the Thakuri dynasty, another dynasty's rule started in Nepal which was founded by Arideva or Ari Malla. This dynasty is popularly known as the 'Malla Dynasty' which has authentic historical records.
Malla Period (1200 - 1769 AD)
The early Malla monarchs held absolute power by divine right: they were considered to be incarnations of Vishnu, as are the present Shah rulers. Although the Mallas were Hindu Shaivites following strict Brahmin rituals, they were tolerant of Buddhism, which was widespread at the court and among the people - especially in its Tantric form, the cult of Vajrayana.
A feudal administrative structure was imposed, dominated by an aristocratic elite whose powers at times overshadowed those of the sovereign. Below them, Brahmins and Chhetris monopolized all offices of profit around the palace. Next on the social ladder were the traders and farmers, divided into 64 strictly enforced occupational castes.
The most popular kings of this period and their accomplishments are briefly described below:
Jayasthiti Malla (1354-1395)
Jayasthiti Malla was the most famous of all the Malla Kings. As a great reformer, he codified the whole structure of the Nepalese society in a strictly orthodox Hindu frame. Jayasthiti was a builder of temples and a patron of art and literature. He was also an economic reformer and introduced a system of measuring land and houses.Pratap Malla
Pratap Malla was the King of Kantipur, today�s Kathmandu. He was an authority in religion, music, and the art of warfare. And though he was a Hindu, he tolerated other religions. He even reconstructed the Buddhist shrine of Swayambunath. He constructed Krishna Mandir, the Shrine of Taleju, Rani Pokhari, and Guheswari temple.Jaya Prakash Malla
Jaya Prakash was the last King of Kantipur. Although brave and confident, he was unlucky. He tried to save the Valley from a Gorkha attack, calling for unity among the three states around Kathmandu. But he was not heeded to. Even calling on the army from the East India Company did not help. Fighting within his family was partly to blame.Ranjit Malla
Ranjit Malla was the last King of Bhaktapur. As a lover of rare and precious things, he added many courtyards to his palace. And to improve economic conditions in his Kingdom, he imported silver exporting it as coins.Shah Period (1769 to date)
Down South, Nepal was expanding its territory into India. By 1810, the kingdom extended from Kashmir to Sikkim and was double its present size. Confrontations led to a two-year war with the British between 1814-1816. Nepal was defeated and the Sugauli Treaty was signed in 1816, under which Nepal lost one-third of its territory. Another stipulation was that a British citizen reside in Kathmandu, bringing great resentment from the Nepalese. The borders were subsequently closed to foreigners, not to be reopened until 1951 The British resident and his successors were the only aliens within Nepal�s frontiers for well over a century.
The prime minister, Bhimsen Thapa, suffered humiliation from this defeat and was arrested and locked up and committed suicide in 1839. The period between 1836-1846 was marked with confusion and intrigues. Pandays, Basnyats, and Kunwars were all fighting each other for power. In 1846, Jung Bahadur Rana had himself designated prime minister and later "Maharajah" with powers superior to those of the king. He established an oligarchy which would last 104 years. The country was kept in isolation and the people were deprived of political and social rights. Enemies were assassinated or persecuted and the power structure and state moneys were directed solely to the self interest of the Ranas. The King was there but he was kept under complete control of the Ranas. In 1850, Jung Bahadur visited England and France bringing back ideas with him. One prime minister reformed the forced labor system, another started a college and started a newspaper but altogether much more harm than good was done.
After World War II, many changes were taking place. Colonies were gaining independence, particularly India from Great Britain. The Communists of China invaded Tibet, forcing many refugees to flee to Nepal and India.
A "liberal" Rana prime minister proposed a new constitution offering a measure of people�s participation through an administrative system known as panchayat. Village elders would solve problems locally with leaders elected to a national panchayat. But this new idea was soon undone by a successor.
With the support of the Indian Congress Party, opponents of the Rana rule - including some prominent Ranas - joined the Nepali Congress Party under the leadership of B.P. Koirala. The rightful sovereign of Nepal, King Tribhuvan, still powerless in his palace, was heralded as the embodiment of the democratic aspirations of the people.
In November 1950, the King fled to India under the pretense of going hunting. The "freedom fighters" of Nepal fought the Ranas, setting up bases in the Terai. As their was no decisive victor, India presided over a compromise. The King returned from India and soon thereafter, the Ranas went to live in India.
The period between 1951-1959 passed with uncertainty as the King did not comply with his promise of holding elections for the constituent assembly. Finally, only under pressure from the parties, King Mahendra (son of King Tribhuvan) declared elections for the parliament in 1959.
The Nepali Congress surprisingly won a majority of the seats in the new parliament. This led the King to fear he would be reduced to a ceremonial role and thus, on December 15, 1960 declared foreign politics were not for him and had the Nepali Congress put under arrest. He would have direct rule. Two years later, he started the panchayat system. The local five-man panchayat would send representatives to the district which would send others to the national panchayat. But this body had few real powers.
Under the "Panchayat Democracy"
In 1989, a trade impasse erupted with India. India blockaded 17 of the 19 entry points. This led to much discontent from which the opposition parties capitalized. The Nepali Congress, with support of the Communists, launched a mass movement against the Panchayat system. It was successful in mobilizing people from all walks of life. Two aspects were unprecedented in this movement. One was the alliance of the Nepali Congress with the Communists. The second was the international support for the movement.
After the change, the interior government headed by the Nepali Congress leader Krishna Prasad Bhattarai was formed. The tasks of the government included framing the constitution and holding a general election for Parliament.
Today, the Nepali Congress and United Marxists/Leninists are the two main parties that make up the government. The King, however, reserves the right to name one-fifth of the members of the legislature and continues as a strong monarchy.
| A Brief History of Nepal |
Newars are thought to have lived in the Nepal Valley since the 4th century AD, developing a Hindu-Buddhist culture. The Gurkha principality was later established by RAJPUT warriors from India, and in 1769 they conquered lands beyond the present-day borders of Nepal. After incursions into northern India in which the Gurkhas were defeated, Nepal lost part of its territory to British India but retained its independence and enjoyed close ties with the British.It has maintained its close association with India since the latter gained independence in 1947. Nepal, the world's only Hindu monarchy, was controlled by a hereditary prime ministership until 1951. The nation's first election was held in 1959, but in 1960, King Mahendra dismissed the cabinet, dissolved parliament, and banned political parties. A 1962 constitution created a nonparty panchayat (council) system of government. After a 1980 referendum approved a modified version of the panchayat system, direct parliamentary elections were held in 1981. A dispute with India led to India's closing of most border crossings from March 1989 to July 1990, and the resultant economic crisis fueled demands for political reform. After months of violence, King Birendra Bir Bikram Shah Dev dissolved parliament. The opposition formed an interim government in April 1990, and a new constitution creating a constitutional monarchy and a bicameral legislature became effective on Nov. 9, 1990. Multiparty legislative elections held in May 1991 were won by the centrist Nepali Congress party; the Communists became the leading opposition party. Mid-term elections in November 1994, which were called after the government lost a parliamentary vote, resulted in a hung parliament and the communists, who emerged as the single largest party, formed a minority government. Source: Grolier's Encyclopedia Nepal: Chronology of Important Events
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Friday, July 9, 2010
THARU CULTURE
THE CHANGING THARU CULTURE:
A Study of Indan Tribe in Socio-Cultural Dynamics
A Study of Indan Tribe in Socio-Cultural Dynamics
Subhash Chandra Verma
Department of Sociology
Government Post Graduate College, Rudrapur, India
Department of Sociology
Government Post Graduate College, Rudrapur, India
Abstract: The Tharu culture is very “eco-friendly”; all cultural activities of this tribe are deeply related with nature. Their residence, food, clothing, art, religion, economy and many other aspects of life are based on nature and maintaining an ecological balance. The Tharu people worship mainly their tribal Goddess, The Earth, called ‘Bhumsen’ in their folk language. There is a well-organized family system in this community. Women have a high status and considerable social and economic rights in the family system. Although this community has a paternal family organization, women have high position and sufficient rights - a remarkable fact. Tharu youth are fond of change; hence they are struggling for advancement. There are many other communities existing in the Tharu area due to industrialization and commerce, so a process of cultural exchange is taking place. Tharu youth are attracted to the new and modern lifestyle. They are ignoring their traditional tribal culture, and the identity of the old Tharu culture is endangered. They have to get an advanced education, in communication, technology etc. But care for the old culture is necessity too if they are to keep their identity.
Keywords: Tharu, Tribe, Youth, Culture, Change, Awareness
1. Introduction
The Tharu tribe is one of the most populous tribes of India and Nepal. The Tharu are an indigenous people living in the Terai plains on the border of Nepal and India. The population of Nepal is 28,287,147 (July 2006 est.), of which the Tharu people make up 6.6%. A smaller number of Tharus live in India, mostly in Champaran District of Bihar and in Udham Singh Nagar District of Uttrakhand, Kheeri, Pilibhit, Gonda, Balrampur, Gorakhpur, Bahirayach of Uttar Pradesh. The population of these people is 83,544 in Uttar Pradesh and 85,665 in Uttrakhand State, making a total of about 169,209 in India. The Tharu are recognized as a scheduled tribe by the Government of India. The Constitution of India gives many special social, educational and economic rights to these scheduled tribes and castes because they are the primary victims of the backwardness. The Tharus are struggling for their rights and cultural protection.
India is a famous country for Multi-culturism and the Tharu tribe of this country is a good example of Multi-culturism. There are many ethnic sub groups existed in the Tharu tribe for example- Rana, Badbayak, Buksa, Jugia, Khunka, Dangora, Katheriya, Dahait, Sansa, Battha,Varatia, Mahato etc. Each sub-group has its own cultural specialties but after it all groups collectively known as a great ethnic group the Tharu tribe.
At present the Tharu tribe is suffering from cultural infections because there are many other people from various societies are existed in the Tharu area and some others also coming regularly, for example- Punjabis, Jaat, Paharis, Bangalis etc. The Tharu area has very good and more agricultural land and other natural resources for industry so many formaers, industrialist and others are existed in this area. This is why the Tharus are regularly in touch of other cultures and also accepting their specialties. There are many Religious missionaries are also working in the Tharu area for converting them in their religions. Mainly the Christian and Hindu missionaries are doing conversion of the Tharus in their faith. The Hindu missionaries are saying that the Tharus were Rajput Hindus in past so they should live as real Rajputs at present and Christian missionaries are saying that the Hindu society is avoiding the Tharus since a long time and they were treating very badly and poorly as low status group so they should not believe in the Hinduism. They will get more development and high status in the Christian religion. This is why the Christian missionaries are providing more facilities for education, health care and employment. At present some Tharus are accepting the Christian religion rapidly. These are many reasons for developing multi-cultureism in the Tharus.
India is a famous country for Multi-culturism and the Tharu tribe of this country is a good example of Multi-culturism. There are many ethnic sub groups existed in the Tharu tribe for example- Rana, Badbayak, Buksa, Jugia, Khunka, Dangora, Katheriya, Dahait, Sansa, Battha,Varatia, Mahato etc. Each sub-group has its own cultural specialties but after it all groups collectively known as a great ethnic group the Tharu tribe.
At present the Tharu tribe is suffering from cultural infections because there are many other people from various societies are existed in the Tharu area and some others also coming regularly, for example- Punjabis, Jaat, Paharis, Bangalis etc. The Tharu area has very good and more agricultural land and other natural resources for industry so many formaers, industrialist and others are existed in this area. This is why the Tharus are regularly in touch of other cultures and also accepting their specialties. There are many Religious missionaries are also working in the Tharu area for converting them in their religions. Mainly the Christian and Hindu missionaries are doing conversion of the Tharus in their faith. The Hindu missionaries are saying that the Tharus were Rajput Hindus in past so they should live as real Rajputs at present and Christian missionaries are saying that the Hindu society is avoiding the Tharus since a long time and they were treating very badly and poorly as low status group so they should not believe in the Hinduism. They will get more development and high status in the Christian religion. This is why the Christian missionaries are providing more facilities for education, health care and employment. At present some Tharus are accepting the Christian religion rapidly. These are many reasons for developing multi-cultureism in the Tharus.
2. Methodology
This study is based on a primary survey using Direct/Participant Observation and Interview methods to arrive at the conclusions. Available secondary resources, however, have also been used. At present, the author is conducting a research project on Tharu tribe about awareness in youth, with financial help of University Grants Commission of India. That is why he has used Primary Survey data for this project. This article is part of the underwriting report of this project. The primary information was collected from the Nakulia, Sisona, Tharu Tisour and Baghori villages of Tahsil Siatrganj District, Udham Singh Nagar State, Uttrakhand, India. This work is presented in Exploratory and Analytic research design with help of statistical methods. Some statements in this study are based on secondary data, but the major results are from primary data.
This study is based on a primary survey using Direct/Participant Observation and Interview methods to arrive at the conclusions. Available secondary resources, however, have also been used. At present, the author is conducting a research project on Tharu tribe about awareness in youth, with financial help of University Grants Commission of India. That is why he has used Primary Survey data for this project. This article is part of the underwriting report of this project. The primary information was collected from the Nakulia, Sisona, Tharu Tisour and Baghori villages of Tahsil Siatrganj District, Udham Singh Nagar State, Uttrakhand, India. This work is presented in Exploratory and Analytic research design with help of statistical methods. Some statements in this study are based on secondary data, but the major results are from primary data.
3. History
The Tharus Claim that historically they are not Tribal community because they are migrated Rajputs (upper cast Hindus) which has been converted in a tribal community in the period of living in forest. The Tharus also claim that they have a amazing historical past in Indian society. They related themselves to Thar area of Rajasthan state of India. Many historians, Anthropologist and Sociologist have different views about history of the Tharu tribe. Some Tharus do cliam that they are related with Lord Budha’s clan and some also claims that they are related with Lord Krishna’s clan. There is running a debate since a long period but clear result is awaited till now about true and real history of the Tharus.
The Tharus Claim that historically they are not Tribal community because they are migrated Rajputs (upper cast Hindus) which has been converted in a tribal community in the period of living in forest. The Tharus also claim that they have a amazing historical past in Indian society. They related themselves to Thar area of Rajasthan state of India. Many historians, Anthropologist and Sociologist have different views about history of the Tharu tribe. Some Tharus do cliam that they are related with Lord Budha’s clan and some also claims that they are related with Lord Krishna’s clan. There is running a debate since a long period but clear result is awaited till now about true and real history of the Tharus.
The Tharu are the largest and oldest ethnic group of the Terai region, living in villages near dense malaria-infested jungles in regions that were isolated for millennia, allowing them to develop a unique culture. They work usually as farmers or peddlers. Although physically the Tharu are similar to other peoples in the area, they speak their own language that originated in Sanskrit and is now recognized officially. Recent medical evidence supports the common belief that the Tharu people, having lived in the swampy Terai region for centuries, have developed an innate resistance to malaria that is likely based on an unidentified genetic factor. According to the Nepali author, Subodh Kumar Singh, a series of invasions by the Rajput kings, eroded the influence of the indigenous Tharus. In 1854 Jung Bahadur, the first Rana prime minister of Nepal, developed the Mulki Ain, a codification of Nepal's indigenous legal system which divided society into a system of castes. The Tharus were placed at the bottom of the social hierarchy. Their land was taken away, disrupting their community and displacing the people. In the 1950s, World Health Organization helped the Nepalese government eradicate malaria in the Terai region. This resulted in the immigration of people from other areas to claim the fertile land, making the Tharus slaves to the new landowners and developing the kamaiya system of bonding generations of Tharus families to labour.
4. Social and Cultural Systems and Life Style
The economy of Tharu community is based on agriculture and forest (Pradhan, 1937 p. 59). Historically, they were the only ones that were able to reside in the malarial jungles on the Indo-Nepal border. But as mosquito control became available, many others have migrated into this tribe’s areas. They have deep affiliation with forest and river. The population of Tharu tribe is near to one lac in India and in Nepal this figure is 1533879, it is 6.75% of total population of Nepal (Nepal online). This tribal community has many specialties about their culture and socio-economic systems. There are many clans, called Kuri in the local language,) which are called, as follows: Badwayak, Battha, Rawat, Birtiya, Mahto, Dahait, Rajia, Bunka, Sansa, Jugia, Buxa, Dhangra, and Rana. All of these Tharu clans are ranked from lower to higher status (Turner, 1931 p. 599). The Tharus are considered “Hindus,” but they are purely a tribal community from the anthropological point of view. The Tharu people worship mainly their tribal Goddess called as Bhuiyan or Bhumsen with other Hindu God and Goddess. The government of India has accepted this community as a Scheduled Tribe.
The Tharu themselves did not keep written records and what is known of their early history is derived from passing references in religious texts and etymological evidence. It seems probable that that have not just one origin, and that they arrived in the area from different places at different times. There may be truth in all these theories. The Panchayat system (Local Social Council) is very strong in this tribe; the head of panchayat is called Padhan in the Tharu language.
The Tharus love their folk arts. Tharu songs, Tharu dance (Naach), Tharu tattoos, Tharu wall paintings, Tharu handicrafts, and Tharu magic are all very interesting and distinctive. A remarkable fact is that they make handicrafts only for personal use, not for marketing purposes. They like contrasting colours in dress and wall paintings for decoration of their houses (J.P.Govila, 1959, p. 248),
The Tharus’ main food is fish and rice, but they also used roti, vegetables, mutton, chicken, milk products and others. But since hunting is banned in forest, they cannot obtain much wild meat. Also, because of poverty, they cannot afford expensive mutton and chicken, so they use more and more fish in their diet.
Tharus are very hospitable and they show much respect to their guests. They like to serve a large variety of foods and the best dishes for their guests. Tharus are very friendly by nature and every Tharu individual has a best friend. A man’s best male friend is called his meet or dilba, and the woman’s best female friend is called her sangan. Tharus treat their best friend as a real brother or sister.
Some Tharu live in longhouses, which may hold up to 150 people. The longhouses are built of mud with lattice walls.
They grow barley, wheat, maize, and rice, as well as raise animals such as chickens, ducks, pigs, and goats. In the big rivers, they use large nets to catch fish. Because the Tharu lived in isolation in malarial swamps until the recent use of DDT, they developed a distinctive style of decorating the walls, rice containers and other objects in their environment. The Tharu women transform the outer walls and verandahs of their homes into colorful paintings dedicated to Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of prosperity and fertility.
The economy of Tharu community is based on agriculture and forest (Pradhan, 1937 p. 59). Historically, they were the only ones that were able to reside in the malarial jungles on the Indo-Nepal border. But as mosquito control became available, many others have migrated into this tribe’s areas. They have deep affiliation with forest and river. The population of Tharu tribe is near to one lac in India and in Nepal this figure is 1533879, it is 6.75% of total population of Nepal (Nepal online). This tribal community has many specialties about their culture and socio-economic systems. There are many clans, called Kuri in the local language,) which are called, as follows: Badwayak, Battha, Rawat, Birtiya, Mahto, Dahait, Rajia, Bunka, Sansa, Jugia, Buxa, Dhangra, and Rana. All of these Tharu clans are ranked from lower to higher status (Turner, 1931 p. 599). The Tharus are considered “Hindus,” but they are purely a tribal community from the anthropological point of view. The Tharu people worship mainly their tribal Goddess called as Bhuiyan or Bhumsen with other Hindu God and Goddess. The government of India has accepted this community as a Scheduled Tribe.
The Tharu themselves did not keep written records and what is known of their early history is derived from passing references in religious texts and etymological evidence. It seems probable that that have not just one origin, and that they arrived in the area from different places at different times. There may be truth in all these theories. The Panchayat system (Local Social Council) is very strong in this tribe; the head of panchayat is called Padhan in the Tharu language.
The Tharus love their folk arts. Tharu songs, Tharu dance (Naach), Tharu tattoos, Tharu wall paintings, Tharu handicrafts, and Tharu magic are all very interesting and distinctive. A remarkable fact is that they make handicrafts only for personal use, not for marketing purposes. They like contrasting colours in dress and wall paintings for decoration of their houses (J.P.Govila, 1959, p. 248),
The Tharus’ main food is fish and rice, but they also used roti, vegetables, mutton, chicken, milk products and others. But since hunting is banned in forest, they cannot obtain much wild meat. Also, because of poverty, they cannot afford expensive mutton and chicken, so they use more and more fish in their diet.
Tharus are very hospitable and they show much respect to their guests. They like to serve a large variety of foods and the best dishes for their guests. Tharus are very friendly by nature and every Tharu individual has a best friend. A man’s best male friend is called his meet or dilba, and the woman’s best female friend is called her sangan. Tharus treat their best friend as a real brother or sister.
Some Tharu live in longhouses, which may hold up to 150 people. The longhouses are built of mud with lattice walls.
They grow barley, wheat, maize, and rice, as well as raise animals such as chickens, ducks, pigs, and goats. In the big rivers, they use large nets to catch fish. Because the Tharu lived in isolation in malarial swamps until the recent use of DDT, they developed a distinctive style of decorating the walls, rice containers and other objects in their environment. The Tharu women transform the outer walls and verandahs of their homes into colorful paintings dedicated to Lakshmi, the Hindu goddess of prosperity and fertility.
5. The Tharu Village: The Tharus live in small villages which are generally scattered and located at a considerable distance from others. These people are always in search of a good site for founding their villages. A good site in their judgment must be land on a high level with proximity to river or some water supply, yet safe from water-logging and inundation during the rainy season. (Srivastava 1958:19). They build their houses with enough distance from each other for a better lifestyle. The village does not have bachelors’ dormitories or community houses, menstruation huts, guest houses or special granaries for common use and distribution. The House of the Padhan (Village Chief) is a very important place in the village. Even a casual visitor to a Tharu village is impressed by the neat arrangement of the houses, their cleanness in contrast with the congestion of other villages in India. A Tharu village, therefore, represents a closely knit society unites of which have developed a bond of fellowship and corporate life through mutual obligations and co-partnership.
6. Tharu Houses: The Tharus are famous for their clean houses. Generally, Tharus build their houses of mud, wood and grass. They are always cool in summer and hot in winter—this is a specialty of Tharu dwellings. Each house with its field and a vegetable garden is a detached residence with a narrow or a broad alley separating it from the adjacent houses. The house must face the east to bring its residents prosperity. The size of the house depends on the size of the family. The Than (place of worship) is an essential in every house. On the side of the main house the well-to-do Tharus build a bangla (rest house). Both the exterior and interior of the Tharu houses present a neat and clean appearance. They are swept twice or three times a day and the ashes and house-refuse are thrown near the cattle shed or in fields.
7. Religion: Tharus follow the Hindu religion because they claim that they are related by blood to the Rajputs of Rajasthan. This is very interesting claim, because they do not have any element of Rajasthni Rajputs in their race or culture (N. Kumar, 1968 p. 39). In fact, Tharus are related to the Mongoloid race, and Rajputs are of a very different race. Dr. D.N. Majumadar contested the supposed Rajput origin of the Tharus on the basis of blood group tests and he has found that Tharus are Mongoloid, so they cannot be related to the Rajputs (Majumadar, 1941, p. 33). The Tharu are adherents of Hinduism, but they also hold certain Islamic, animist, and Buddhist beliefs. Small numbers have converted to Buddhism in the recent years. Such syncretic practices have led the Tharu to practice folk Hinduism. With the advent of religious freedom, others have converted to Christianity, and there are a variety of congregations active in the various districts where Tharus are found. Traditional Tharus worship various gods in the form of animals, such as dogs, crow, ox and cows. Such gods are seen in Hinduism also. Every village has its own deity, commonly known as Bhuinyar. Tharu in East Nepal call their deity Gor-raja. Most Tharu households own a statue of a traditional god. Family members often offer sacrifices of the blood of animals to appease the god. Animals such as pigeons and chickens are used for sacrificial purposes, and milk and silk cloth are also used as offerings. Many Tharu also use the blood of one of the male members in the family for sacrificial rituals. Such rituals are ceremonies in which superficial cuts are made in the forehead, arms, throat, legs, and/or chest.
The gods are believed to have the ability to heal diseases and sickness. According to traditional legend, gods are given a bhakal, a promise of something, on condition that the sickness is cured, in any the event of misfortunes, plagues and nightmares. A relative's death is an event of great significance among Tharu, and the rituals conducted vary in accordance with regions. Tharu may approach shamans as doctors, known as guruba. Such shamans use Buddhist medicines to cure illness. Shamans will also try to appease gods through incantations, beating drums and offering sacrifices. The Tharu believe sickness comes when the gods are displeased, and the demons are at work.
Buddhist converts among the Tharu are found in Saptari, Siraha and Udaypur. Currently it is believed that there are more than one dozen Buddhist monks and novices among the Tharu people. Such practice was possibly based on the fact that they were inspired by the discovery that the Lord Buddha was a member of the Tharu tribe.
The gods are believed to have the ability to heal diseases and sickness. According to traditional legend, gods are given a bhakal, a promise of something, on condition that the sickness is cured, in any the event of misfortunes, plagues and nightmares. A relative's death is an event of great significance among Tharu, and the rituals conducted vary in accordance with regions. Tharu may approach shamans as doctors, known as guruba. Such shamans use Buddhist medicines to cure illness. Shamans will also try to appease gods through incantations, beating drums and offering sacrifices. The Tharu believe sickness comes when the gods are displeased, and the demons are at work.
Buddhist converts among the Tharu are found in Saptari, Siraha and Udaypur. Currently it is believed that there are more than one dozen Buddhist monks and novices among the Tharu people. Such practice was possibly based on the fact that they were inspired by the discovery that the Lord Buddha was a member of the Tharu tribe.
The Current Problems and Changes among the Tharu Society
The Indian Tharu youth are very important wing of their community. They are playing very creative role in their community. But they are not connected with mainstream of development. Some youth are trying to get higher education and advanced technology but in little number. They have neither advance ness nor keep awareness about their traditional culture. They must have to get advance education, communication, technology and new life style but care of traditional culture is must too for keep their own identity. Youth of other tribes of this area (Bhotia and Jaunsari etc) are aggressive more than Tharu Youth. Many Bhotia and Jaunsari youths are working as administrative officers, professors, Doctors, Engineers, and Advocates etc. They are very advanced and also careful about their traditional culture. However, Tharu youth are very poor in this matter. Generally Tharu youth do not like to go in advanced cities for education. Nepalese Tharu youth are more aware and advanced than Indian Tharu youth because there are many youth organizations and groups are active in Nepalese Tharu community for development and extension of education, technology, health care etc.
The Tharu community has its amazing culture with many specialties but it is bad luck of this community that its own new generations especially highly educated youth are not so aware for care it. Some Tharus are trying to keep their own socio-cultural values but they are not success in their target till now. Large number of Tharu youth wants change in their life, so they are ignoring their own cultural values. It is true that Tharu youth want change but it has not this meaning that they are very aggressive or advanced. They are only following other communities for a new life style. We can say in other words that the process of Sanskirtization is still running in this community. Tharu youth are playing very creative role in their community but they are not connected with main stream of development even some youth are trying to get higher education and advanced technology but in few number. Maximum Tharu youth are trying to accept other culture only for leaving their old own culture. There are many Religious missionaries are working for conversion of Tharus in this area, that is why some Tharus have converted in other religions. The Tharu youth are ignoring their own culture and losing traditional values. Neither have they got advance ness nor do they aware about their traditional culture. Tharu Rana Parishad (Council of Tharu Community) is a main organization of this community which is active in this socio-cultural movement in this area. This organization is trying to keep traditional culture of Tharus. But this organization is not so success in its main goals.
The Tharu community is one of them Indian tribes which have not more and enough awareness about education. There are many educational institutes and organizations are working in Tharu area but percentage of educated people is very low in Tharu community. Most Tharu students want a job early that is why they are not interesting in post graduate level education. Graduation level is enough for a general job so they want only eligibility for a general job. Only those students are studying in post graduation level which want any special job or did not get a job still. Some students are taking education in post graduate level for doctorate degree but number of these students is few. There are only 2 students (1 male & 1 female) want to do research for Ph.D. level. There is only one Tharu man (Prem Singh Rana) has Ph.D. Degree in this area. At present he is Lecturer in college.
We have been said that also that Tharu Community is suffering form social changes and their youth are playing active role in this process. Youths are refusing many old social rules and customs. In this era new Tharu generation do not like and support early age marriage, leadership& dictatorship of old aged people, Joint family System, Traditional typical Costumes, marriage with elder women. Tribal religious activities& Things etc. traditional Social values have lost their importance and new trends are still running. There is an interesting and amazing system of mutual friendship called as Mitai popular in Tharus community. In this system friends treat together as real brothers or sisters and they every help and support together without any formality. Male friend called as Dilwar or Meet and female Called as Sangan. This system shows the human social values and feeling of the Tharus but at present this system is losing its importance like many other old systems. Kinship system is also changing and materialistic culture is affecting badly on blood and marriage relationships. New generation is using new words on place of old words of relations for example- now Dauwa (Father) is called as Papa or dady and Aiya (mother) is called as Mammy. Many specialties of other communities have been accepted by Tharus at present so we can say that the process of cultural infection is killing the traditional Tharu social system.
In past there were many other communities was capturing Tharu’s Forest and agricultural land but cool minded Tharus never conflicted with them. Many other communities like Muslims, Sikhs, Paharis etc. are Continuously capturing Tharu properties and also hurting their feelings since a long past. The Tharus say that outsiders are cheaters, they are cheating our community. But now situation has been changed because the Tharu youth do not like interfere of others in their own properties. Some educated and politically empowered youth know their rights very well so they are now struggling for freehold of their own agricultural land and other properties. Situation of social conflict is still running because other communities are counter attacking on the Tharus. Blast of population and disorganization of joint families are increasing need of more agricultural land and other natural resources so the Tharu youth are conducting social movements. At present Tharu community is suffering from problem of poverty, illiteracy, social and cultural pollution but its youth are struggling for development.
1- Educational Awareness
The Tharu community is one of them Indian tribes which have not more and enough awareness about education. There are many educational institutes and organizations are working in Tharu area but percentage of educated people is very low in Tharu community. Tharu tribe is also living in nearest country Nepal and there are more and enough awareness about education in this community. There are many social workers of their own community are working hard for education, for example- In 1984 that young man, whose name is Dilli Chaudhary, founded Backward Society Education (BASE) to stand up for the rights of Nepal's marginalized Tharu ethnic group (Roger, 2007). Table-1 shows thats there are 81.90 % Tharu students are enrolled in graduate level and percentage of female in these students is 41.05, it means they are not more backward than male. Only 18.10 per cent students are studying at post graduate level and there are 42.86 % girls are also in these students. Table-1 also showing that number of students at graduate 1st year level are more than upper levels, it means performance of these students is not good in examination because there are 37.07% students enrolled in 1st year but only 24.14 % students in second year and 20.69 % in third year are studying. Females are performing well than Males in this matter. Population of Tharu tribe in district Udham Singh Nagar is 81230 (Statistical Magazine 2008:14) and there are only 138 students are studying in Government Post Graduate College of the District head quarter. It means only 0.16per cent youth of total population are taking higher education, in matter of women this figure is only 0.03 %. Total populations of all communities in this district 1253614 (Statistical Magazine 2008:16) and 6125 student are enrolled in that college. It means 0.48 percent youth of total population are studying in this college and percentage of Tharu students is only 0.16 so the data shows that awareness about higher education in the Tharu youth is 1/3 comparatively other youth.
Comparative Graph about Number of Tharu students in various standards
(Source of facts- Table No.1)
Table-2 shows that 28.45 % students are interesting in Graduate level degree only but a large number of students (69.83 %) want to take post graduate degree. There are only 29.31 % girls and 41.52 % boys are interesting in post graduate level education. Most Tharu students want a job early that is why they are not interesting in post graduate level education. Graduation level is enough for a general job so they want only eligibility for a general job. Only those students are studying in post graduation level which want any special job or did not get a job still. Some students are taking education in post graduate level for doctorate degree but number of these students is few. There are only 2 students (1 male & 1 female) want to do research for Ph.D. level. There is only one Tharu man (Prem Singh Rana) has Ph.D. Degree in this area. At present he is Lecturer in college. Facts are showing that few numbers of Tharu students are interesting in research for Ph.D. level. This situation is not good for their bright future. There are many researchers from other communities are doing research on Tharu tribe but its own students do not like to do study about their own community.
2- Status of Awareness about Employment
At present it is a bad luck of Indian society that every person is getting education only for a job. That is why the social and cultural values are losing their importance. It is big factor and region for social valueless social change. This fact is 100 percent true about Tharu community also. At present every Tharu student studying for job only, a large group of Tharu students do not care their own culture and social values. Employment factor is affecting their social and cultural values because they do not like and want their traditional occupation, they only want any new job any how and on any cost. Table-3 is showing that only 9.48 per cent youth like or want to do their own business and maximum youth (90.42%) want government or private service job. Table-3 is showing a notable fact that awareness about administrative and higher class service job is not enough. There are only 4.31 % youth are trying for higher class service job. Army and police force job is very popular in this community but youth are not trying to get officer class job in force, they are trying only for ordinary job like constable and solider. A big part of student (35.34 %) wants any service job any how. School teacher job is also popular in Tharu youth because the opportunity of this job is easily able in local area. Table -4 shows that maximum 54.31 % youth want to do service job in local area that is why the school teaching job is popular in Tharu youth. Police and army force job is popular in those youth which are physically strong and fit. Social status of police & army men is deemed high and powerful in Tharu community so most youth like to do this job. Agriculture is main and traditional occupation of the tharu tribe but new generation especially higher educated youth do not like agriculture and its related occupations. Government has stabled more industries in Tharu area so the opportunity of job is able easily. Industrialization is playing big role in socio-cultural change in Tharu community because Tharus are coming in touch of other communities.
3- Status of Awareness about Modern Technology and Communication
Tharu youth are very backward in mater of advanced Education, Technology and Communication. They do not like to go in big cities for advanced education and mostly youth are careless about big goal of life. This era is era of modern technology and advanced communication but the Tharu youth are not using these things for making their own carrier. They are using some technological things like Mobile phone, FM Radio, Television & DVD Player but only for entertainment, not for their business or making good carrier. Table-5 shows that there are 100% youth view Television but this is fact that most youth view only movies and other entertainment programmes. They do not like to view News and educational programmes. Table -5 also shows that the most important communication system Internet is not popular in Tharu youth. Only 1.72 % youth are using internet and have their Email addresses. There are 50 % youth are using Radio and FM Radio but maximum youth hear songs and other entertainment full programmes. Maximum youth (93.10%) are reading News Papers and Magazines but the situation is same here like television or FM radio. Maximum youth like to read only entertainment full news and articles mostly about Movie Actors and Actress. There is little number of youth those like to read editorial and other knowledge full articles. This is status of awareness in highly educated Tharu youth, in the matter of other Tharu youth situation will be more poor and thinkable. Many communication companies are providing Mobile Phones on very low pries so many youth (18.10 %) are using mobile phones. Students those living in hostel are mostly using mobile phones for talking to their parents and girl / boy friends also. In short we can say that Tharu youth need to use more and more technologies and communication systems but for making good carrier and real goal of life.
4- Status of Awareness about Their Own Culture
The Tharu community has its amazing culture with many specialties but it is bad luck of this community that its own new generations especially highly educated youth are not so aware for care it. Some Tharus are trying to keep their own socio-cultural values but they are not success in their target till now. Large number of Tharu youth wants change in their life, so they are ignoring their own cultural values. It is true that Tharu youth want change but it has not this meaning that they are very aggressive or advanced. They are only following other communities for a new life style. We can say in other words that the process of Sanskirtization is still running in this community. Tharu youth are playing very creative role in their community but they are not connected with main stream of development even some youth are trying to get higher education and advanced technology but in few number. Maximum Tharu youth are trying to accept other culture only for leaving their old own culture. There are many Religious missionaries are working for conversion of Tharus in this area, that is why some Tharus have converted in other religions. The Tharu youth are ignoring their own culture and losing traditional values. Neither have they got advance ness nor do they aware about their traditional culture.Table-6 shows that 1.72 % youth do not like their own religion and they want to convert in any other religion. There are 17.24 % youth like to wear their traditional costumes and other related things, 30.17 % youth have good feelings for their own culture but they are not playing any role for care it. Maximum 69.83 % youth do not care their own culture and they want change in their life style, only 9.48 % youth are active in movement for keeping their own socio-cultural values. Tharu Rana Parishad (Council of Tharu Community) is a main organization of this community which is active in this socio-cultural movement in this area. This organization is trying to keep traditional culture of Tharus. But this organization is not so success in its main goals.
5- Status of Awareness about Health
There are many social, cultural and economic groups existing in Indian society simultaneously .Their standard of living and awareness varies according to their socio-economic status. There are two major parts of population in India 1- Rural Communities (70%) and 2-Urban communities (30%). Rural communities have lack of Economic, Educational progress. Indian society has four major social classes 1- General Casts, 2- Scheduled Cast, 3-Other Backward Cast, and 4-Schedualed Tribes. Every class has various social, economic and educational statuses; these are reasons of various status of awareness. Rural and Backward communities have not more awareness about Education and Health. Every class has different figure of health awareness. The Tharu community is a part of Indian Scheduled Tribes but this community is more aware about health care than other backward and scheduled casts. The Tharus are physically strong and fit generally because they eat healthy natural foods and they also have many traditional treatment systems. The Tharus eat mostly fish, pork, chicken, Milk products, garlic, onions, ginger, Lemon and fruits. They also like physical exercise and games so they keep their salve fit and fast. Tharus are the largest group of people in the Terai area. Historically, they were the only ones that were able to reside in the malarial jungles. Recent medical evidence supports the common belief that the Tharu people, having lived in the swampy Terai region for centuries, have developed an innate resistance to malaria that is likely based on an unidentified genetic factor.
At present the approach of health care is changing according to develoment especially in new genration of this community. Table -7 shows that maximum (54.31%) Tharu youth like to take modern medical treatments and 45.69 % youth like to take traditional medical treatment. 45.69 % youth like to do physical exercise daily and 9.48 % youth are playing role in various type of helath activities. Youth those active in helth care programmes are volientary working in National Service Scheam (NSS) this is a national scheam of India for students for social work and development. All Tharu students know about HIV/AIDS because there is many litrature and alerting advertisments about HIV/AIDS are ablavle in India. Notable fact is this that more youth do not like their own culture but mostly they like to take their tradiational medical treatments.At present other people are also coming back on Traditional, natural and hurbal medical treatments systems just like Yoga, naturopathy, Ayurveda etc. So this is good signal for Tharu youth because they also like these medical traetment systems. At least we can say that future of health care in Tharu community is very bright.
At present the approach of health care is changing according to develoment especially in new genration of this community. Table -7 shows that maximum (54.31%) Tharu youth like to take modern medical treatments and 45.69 % youth like to take traditional medical treatment. 45.69 % youth like to do physical exercise daily and 9.48 % youth are playing role in various type of helath activities. Youth those active in helth care programmes are volientary working in National Service Scheam (NSS) this is a national scheam of India for students for social work and development. All Tharu students know about HIV/AIDS because there is many litrature and alerting advertisments about HIV/AIDS are ablavle in India. Notable fact is this that more youth do not like their own culture but mostly they like to take their tradiational medical treatments.At present other people are also coming back on Traditional, natural and hurbal medical treatments systems just like Yoga, naturopathy, Ayurveda etc. So this is good signal for Tharu youth because they also like these medical traetment systems. At least we can say that future of health care in Tharu community is very bright.
6- Status of Awareness Environment and Pollution
Historically The Tharu culture is very Eco-Friendly, all cultural thing and activities of this tribe are deeply related with nature. Their residence, food, cloths, art, religion, economy and many other part of life are based on nature and keep ecological balance. Tharu people worship mainly their tribal Goddess (The Earth) called as ‘Bhumsen’ in their folk language. Old generation of Tharu community is more aware about nature and environment than new generation. According to S. K. Srivastava (a famous Indian Anthropologist) in the year 1930 the Social Reform Movment which is popularly known as Jati Sudhar (reforms in cast) among the Tharus was initiated by a handful of educated Tharus. (Srivastava 1958:105) Main some Rules of this movement are as following (which are showing the care ness of old Tharu generation)-
• Women in their menstrual period never to enter into the kitchen or cook meals.
• Women must clean their hearths and put on clean cloths before cooking meals.
• All rubbish of the house and refuse of the cattle must be thrown in a ditch outside the village or in fields and not on the path.
• No liquor and meat to be served at any ceremony.
Traditional Tharu houses making system, Agriculture system, cooking system are based on a natural law that is why the environmental valance never disordered in past. But at present there are many other communities existing in Tharu area by Industrialization and Business, so the process of cultural exchange is running in Tharu area. Tharu youth are attracting to new and charming life style. They are ignoring their traditional tribal culture that is why the identity of old Tharu culture is under dangerous. They must have to get advance education, communication, technology etc. But care of old culture is must too for keep their identity. Main problem of Tharus youth is that they want new life style but they do not know about new and current environmental issues. Table-8 is showing this fact that there are only 6.03 % youth know about green house effects and 9.48 % know about Environmental Laws & all types of pollution. Thinkable and shock full fact is this that 90.51 % youth do not know about environmental issues and they also do not care about it. They like using all type of modern thing (which make pollution) without care of environment. This is situation of highly educated youth than we can easily imaging the status of other general Tharu youth.
• Women in their menstrual period never to enter into the kitchen or cook meals.
• Women must clean their hearths and put on clean cloths before cooking meals.
• All rubbish of the house and refuse of the cattle must be thrown in a ditch outside the village or in fields and not on the path.
• No liquor and meat to be served at any ceremony.
Traditional Tharu houses making system, Agriculture system, cooking system are based on a natural law that is why the environmental valance never disordered in past. But at present there are many other communities existing in Tharu area by Industrialization and Business, so the process of cultural exchange is running in Tharu area. Tharu youth are attracting to new and charming life style. They are ignoring their traditional tribal culture that is why the identity of old Tharu culture is under dangerous. They must have to get advance education, communication, technology etc. But care of old culture is must too for keep their identity. Main problem of Tharus youth is that they want new life style but they do not know about new and current environmental issues. Table-8 is showing this fact that there are only 6.03 % youth know about green house effects and 9.48 % know about Environmental Laws & all types of pollution. Thinkable and shock full fact is this that 90.51 % youth do not know about environmental issues and they also do not care about it. They like using all type of modern thing (which make pollution) without care of environment. This is situation of highly educated youth than we can easily imaging the status of other general Tharu youth.
7- Status of Political Awareness
Generally the Tharus have not interest in international and national level politics but at local and regional level some Tharus are playing big role in politics. There are many Tharu populated villages existed in this Tarai region so at the village level Tharus have strongly held on leadership. Trend of leadership is traditionally still in Tharu community. In past the Panchayat (local Tharu council) was very powerful and strong at the village level and the head of Panchayat was called as ‘Padhan’. Members of the Panchayat were called as Panch. The Panchayat was also the Village Court and the time of hearing any matter the Padhan was called as Sarpanch (chief of Court). At present this traditional Tharu Panchayat is not so powerful because own new generation do not like its old rules. New Panchayati Raj (local body governance) system of Indian Government has been replaced old panchyats. The Tharu youth are playing a big role in this new panchayati raj system because they have right of Vote. That is why the old type of leadership has lost its value and youth leadership is growing up rapidly. The ‘Khatima’ seat of Legislative assembly of Uttrakhand is reserved for Tribal community so a Tharu ‘Gopal Singh Rana’ has been elected as representative of this area. Some other Tharus Bhuvan Singh Rana, Bheem Singh Rana, Smt. Sushma Rana, have been elected Chairmanship of Block Development Committee. Many other Tharu people have been elected for post of ‘Pradhan’ (head of Village). Some Tharus are active workers of political parties especially the youth are playing big role. Table-9 is showing this fact that 13.79 % youth are directly involve in local and regional politics and 76.39 % have interest in politics but not involved directly. Only 22.42 % youth are not interested in any type of politics. Reservation policy of Indian government is much favorable for political awareness in Tharu youth because many constitutional and political posts are reserved for Tribal communities.
8- Social Changes and Youth Awareness
We have been said that also that Tharu Community is suffering form social changes and their youth are playing active role in this process. Youths are refusing many old social rules and customs. In this era new Tharu generation do not like and support early age marriage, leadership& dictatorship of old aged people, Joint family System, Traditional typical Costumes, marriage with elder women, (Acharya,2001) Tribal religious activities& Things etc. traditional Social values have lost their importance and new trends are still running. There is an interesting and amazing system of mutual friendship called as Mitai popular in Tharus community. In this system friends treat together as real brothers or sisters and they every help and support together without any formality. Male friend called as Dilwar or Meet and female Called as Sangan. This system shows the human social values and feeling of the Tharus but at present this system is losing its importance like many other old systems. Kinship system is also changing and materialistic culture is affecting badly on blood and marriage relationships. New generation is using new words on place of old words of relations for example- now Dauwa (Father) is called as Papa or dady and Aiya (mother) is called as Mammy. Many specialties of other communities have been accepted by Tharus at present so we can say that the process of cultural infection is killing the traditional Tharu social system. Data is clearly showing in table-10 that maximum youth (67.24 %) are coming from nuclear families and only 32.76 % youths are living in joint families. In past joint family system was very popular is Tharu community but at present situation is just opposite.
In past there were many other communities was capturing Tharu’s Forest and agricultural land but cool minded Tharus never conflicted with them. Many other communities like Muslims, Sikhs, Paharis etc. are Continuously capturing Tharu properties and also hurting their feelings since a long past. The Tharus say that pahari are cheaters, they are cheating our community. (Sigrun, 1979) But now situation has been changed because the Tharu youth do not like interfere of others in their own properties. Some educated and politically empowered youth know their rights very well so they are now struggling for freehold of their own agricultural land and other properties. Situation of social conflict is still running because other communities are counter attacking on the Tharus. Blast of population and disorganization of joint families are increasing need of more agricultural land and other natural resources so the Tharu youth are conducting social movements. At present Tharu community is suffering from problem of poverty, illiteracy, social and cultural pollution but its youth are struggling for development.
Conclusion
The culture of Tharu tribe is really ‘Eco-friendly’ and represents a good social system. The Tharus respect and care the natural resources like the forest, rivers etc. The concept of female-empowerment is not needed in this community because the Tharu women have already a high status and sufficient rights in their society. The old generation of Tharu tribe is more aware of the environment than is the new generation. In conclusion, at present the Tharu tribe is suffering from the effects of “social and cultural dynamics.”
The culture of Tharu tribe is really ‘Eco-friendly’ and represents a good social system. The Tharus respect and care the natural resources like the forest, rivers etc. The concept of female-empowerment is not needed in this community because the Tharu women have already a high status and sufficient rights in their society. The old generation of Tharu tribe is more aware of the environment than is the new generation. In conclusion, at present the Tharu tribe is suffering from the effects of “social and cultural dynamics.”
Acknowledgements
I am especially thankful to the Tharu people, Srikrishna and Hari Singh, of the Nakulia and Baghori villages who helped me a great deal on my visit their villages and arranged everything possible for observation. I am also thankful to the University Grants Commission of India for providing financial aid for my Research Project about Tribal Youth.
I am especially thankful to the Tharu people, Srikrishna and Hari Singh, of the Nakulia and Baghori villages who helped me a great deal on my visit their villages and arranged everything possible for observation. I am also thankful to the University Grants Commission of India for providing financial aid for my Research Project about Tribal Youth.
References
Govila, J. P. 'The Tharu of Terai and Bhabar', Indian Folklore, 2, 1959,
Kumar, N. 1968, 'A Genetic Survey among the Rana Tharus of Nainital District in Uttar Pradesh', Journal of the Indian Anthropological Society, 3, (1-2)
Majumadar, D.N., 1941, ‘The Tharus and their Blood Group,’ Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. VIII, No.1
Nepal now online, http://www.hariyaliclub.org/museum.php
Pradhan, H. Dev, 'Social economy in the Terai (the Tharus)', Journal of the United Provinces Historical Society -10, 1937
Srivastav, S.K., 1958, The Tharus: A Study in Culture Dynamics, Agra University Press, Agra
Turner, A.C., 1931, Census Report of United Provinces of India, Vol. XVIII
Govila, J. P. 'The Tharu of Terai and Bhabar', Indian Folklore, 2, 1959,
Kumar, N. 1968, 'A Genetic Survey among the Rana Tharus of Nainital District in Uttar Pradesh', Journal of the Indian Anthropological Society, 3, (1-2)
Majumadar, D.N., 1941, ‘The Tharus and their Blood Group,’ Journal of Royal Asiatic Society of Bengal, Vol. VIII, No.1
Nepal now online, http://www.hariyaliclub.org/museum.php
Pradhan, H. Dev, 'Social economy in the Terai (the Tharus)', Journal of the United Provinces Historical Society -10, 1937
Srivastav, S.K., 1958, The Tharus: A Study in Culture Dynamics, Agra University Press, Agra
Turner, A.C., 1931, Census Report of United Provinces of India, Vol. XVIII
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